Catholicism in China today numbers around 12 million faithful, but the community is deeply divided. On one side stands the Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association (CCPA), the state-run church founded in 1957 by the Chinese Communist Party to control Catholic life. On the other side are the underground Catholics who remain loyal to Rome, often paying for their faith with imprisonment, torture, or even death.

The split began when Beijing illicitly appointed bishops without Vatican approval in the late 1950s. Pope Pius XII condemned this in his 1958 encyclical Ad Apostolorum Principis, refusing to recognize episcopal consecrations not approved by the Holy See. He warned that the Communist-created church was “parallel” to the true one. In his words, “Catholics who remained faithful to Rome went underground.” The underground church became the only refuge for those unwilling to submit to Communist authority, but it was a refuge marked by constant suffering.

The Legacy of Underground Faith

One of the most striking examples of loyalty to Rome is the story of Cardinal Ignatius Kung Pin-Mei of Shanghai. Arrested in 1955, Kung spent more than 30 years in prison rather than renounce his obedience to the Pope. His courage set a pattern for countless others who would follow him into cells, labor camps, and exile.

To this day, underground bishops and priests endure the same trials. Bishop Augustine Cui Tai, now 75, has been repeatedly detained, placed under house arrest, and subjected to forced labor for decades. Bishop James Su Zhimin of Baoding, arrested in 1997, disappeared into police custody and has not been seen since 2003. When family members caught a brief glimpse of him in a Baoding hospital under guard, it was the last sign of life. His fate remains unknown.

“These men, women, and children are true witnesses for the Catholic faith,” said Agnes Kung, niece of Cardinal Kung. “Their crime: refusing to be absorbed in the state-run Patriotic Church.”

The Vatican’s Gamble with Beijing

The Vatican has tried to reconcile the divided flock, but its efforts have come at great controversy. In 2018, Pope Francis approved a provisional agreement with Beijing over the appointment of bishops. The details remain secret, but reports indicate that Chinese authorities nominate candidates and the Pope confirms them. In theory, this gives Rome veto power, but in practice, Beijing has acted unilaterally more than once.

The deal was defended by Vatican Secretary of State Cardinal Pietro Parolin as an attempt to bring “full communion of all Chinese Catholics” under one structure. Pope Francis insisted it was “the best deal possible,” even if imperfect. Yet critics argue that Rome has legitimized state interference in matters of faith. Journalist Francis X. Rocca wrote that Pope Francis “accommodates Beijing in order to stabilize the Church in China, but Chinese authorities aren’t interested in the faith that Francis professes. They’ve made clear that they want a Church that submits to the state; such a Church might be stable, but would it be Catholic?”

The arrangement was quietly renewed every two years, including under Pope Leo XIV, elected in 2025. After his election, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesman Lin Jian expressed hope that the Vatican would continue “to have dialogue with China in a constructive spirit” and “jointly advance the continuous improvement of China–Vatican relations.” For Beijing, “constructive” means obedience to the Patriotic Church and alignment with Communist policy.

Sinicization and Repression

The Chinese government describes its approach to religion as “sinicization,” the process of adapting faith traditions to Chinese culture. In reality, sinicization means submission to Communist ideology. Archbishop Joseph Li Shan of Beijing openly declared that the goal is to ensure the Catholic Church promotes “the work of evangelization and spirituality along the direction of sinicization.”

For Catholics, this has meant rewritten scripture, forced re-education, and constant surveillance. In one notorious example, a government-issued text depicted Christ stoning to death the woman caught in adultery, twisting the Gospel story in which He forgave her. Cameras line the walls of state-approved churches, and children are barred from attending Mass. Sermons are expected to echo “Xi Jinping Thought.”

The repression has intensified since the 2018 Vatican agreement. A report on persecuted bishops found that since the signing of the deal, at least 10 Vatican-approved bishops have been detained, interrogated, or disappeared. Some have been imprisoned for years without trial. The Communist Party demands that all clergy join the Patriotic Association, pledging “independence” from Rome. Those who resist are punished with house arrest, banishment from their dioceses, or forced “re-education.”

Vatican Silence and Underground Resilience

The Vatican has at times appeared to sideline the underground faithful in order to preserve its dialogue with Beijing. In September 2025, Pope Leo XIV suppressed two historic dioceses, Xiwanzi and Xuanhua, both created by Pope Pius XII in 1946. In their place he erected a new diocese of Zhangjiakou, named after a Communist-era diocese, and recognized Father Wang Zhengui, appointed under CCP direction, as bishop. No mention was made of Bishop Augustine Cui Tai of Xuanhua, still under detention.

For many underground Catholics, the Vatican’s actions have been deeply discouraging. As one priest noted, when 200 clergy were invited to Bishop Zhengui’s consecration, only 50 attended, a quiet sign of resistance.

Still, the underground Church refuses to vanish. Pope Benedict XVI once praised their “faithfulness to Christ the Lord and to the Church—a faithfulness that [they] have manifested sometimes at the price of grave sufferings.” That faithfulness remains alive, even as Rome struggles to balance diplomacy with loyalty.

The Outlook for Chinese Catholics

The future of Catholicism in China remains clouded by uncertainty. Pope Leo XIV has called for prayers for Chinese Catholics, urging them to be “strong and joyful witnesses of the Gospel, even in the midst of trials, to always promote peace and harmony.” But his decision to continue the Vatican’s policy of compromise echoes the path of Pope Francis before him.

The underground Church, often likened to the persecuted Christians of the early centuries, stands at risk of being extinguished or absorbed. Without new bishops, without public recognition, and with the constant threat of arrest, its survival depends on the faith of ordinary believers who refuse to submit.

As Agnes Kung reminds the world, these Catholics are witnesses not just for China, but for the universal Church. Their plight raises a fundamental question: will the Church of Rome stand firmly with those who suffer, or will it continue to pursue dialogue with a regime that insists on rewriting the Gospel itself?